Thursday, September 28, 2017

Western History 40: What was significant about the Punic Wars?

The greatest challenge to Rome’s authority in the Republic Era came from the rival power of Carthage (a Phoenician colonial population located in Modern Day Tunisia). Three Punic Wars were fought over a period of one hundred and twenty years between Rome and its Carthaginian rival for domination of the Western Mediterranean.

In the first of these Wars the Romans invaded Sicily (a region which was within the Carthaginian sphere of influence). The Romans drew first blood with a victory at Agrigentum but the war was largely a Naval engagement with Roman use of boarding bridges (hooked up between ships) deciding the conflict in their favour.

In the Second Punic War Hannibal of Carthage crossed the Alps and attacked Rome from the North with an assorted army that included an elephant contingent and inflicted defeats on Rome and her allies in the Battles of Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae (Hannibal’s greatest victory).  However Carthage could not build on their gains and lacked the resources (mostly military men) to consolidate their foothold. The powers in Carthage refused to supply Hannibal with more troops (as did Hitler with Rommel in North Africa over two thousand years later) and the momentum flipped in favour of Rome who under the skilful leadership of the general Scipio Africanus defeated Carthage on their North African home ground at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE. The Romans had already struck a decisive blow against Carthage in Spain at the Battle of Metaurus in 207 BCE, Carthage sued for peace and were heavily punished by the Romans who were now in full control of the Western Mediterranean.


Hard-line Romans, particularly Cato the Elder (famed for his Carthage must be destroyed speeches) advocated for a war with Carthage and in the Third Punic War (the shortest of the three) Carthage was finally defeated and the city raised to the ground. A treaty negotiated in favour of Rome left the former Phoenician colony powerless.

Tuesday, September 26, 2017

Personal Reflection VII- Recommended Books on Faith

Rick Warren's the Purpose Driven Life was an inspiring read even from the perspective of a non-Christian. It dragged on toward the ends (as do most books of faith) but his exercise-driven practical approach is worth considering for those seeking to renew their connection with G-d and improve their quality of life. Ranking (B+).

Harold Kushner is always a hit with me - I read Who needs God about five months ago and recently completed Living a Life That Matters: Resolving the Conflict between Conscience and Success as a Theistic  Both books provide a needed boost for the reader constantly struggling with an understanding of the working of G-d. The former makes a great case for using G-d as a lens to see the universe while the latter challenges us to think clearly about our notion of success in a world that often seems chaotic.Kushner's prose (which is live with real life examples) adds an added dimension to his analysis in 'Living a Life' by juxtaposing our individual struggle against the challenge faced by the patriarch Jacob in Bereshit (Genesis).
Ranking for Each: (A-)

Canadian David Adams Richards, a past winner of the Governor-General's Award did much to justify his reputation with a wonderful defense of theism in God Is. His first fifty pages where he deconstructs the mocking-of-god cultural meme, that has been for some time in vogue amongst the intelligensia, resonates as one of the best treatments of this topic that I have read for some time.  Ranking: (A-)

Monday, September 25, 2017

Personal Reflection VI - My OCD

I think that I can safely say that I have been dogged by OCD for all of my life. Its exact time of birth still remains uncertain but my earliest memories of an OCD related event most likely occurred at around age five. As a young kid I valued neatness, my room had to be organized in a definite pattern that conveyed a sense of purpose. Smaller books to larger books, toys arranged with decorum, order over chaos - structure dominating randomness. Symmetry over imbalance. Things had to be a certain way or else I was haunted by the dread of imperfection.

Once I was forced to leave in a hurry and my mom helped pack up the toys. Unfortunately she failed to return them all to their correct spot. I was haunted by the break in the natural that such recklessness conveyed. For hours afterward I ruminated on the consequence of such folly as I wondered with desperation on the severity of the misdeed.
This was one of many such actions that would linger in my mind especially if the circumstances prohibited (for some time) physical correction of the error. Such was the perilous equilibrium upon which the world’s fortune hung.

Later on my obsessions spread to cleanliness. Germs were everywhere and I loathed the notion that I a may be infected. Touching anything that appeared to be remotely unclean was a harbinger of disease and I constantly needed confirmation from my parents (more my mom than my dad) that I not fallen under the influence of some diabolical pox. I never did – clearly my immune system was tougher than I gave it credit for. However at the time this rarely mattered. For all intent of purpose I was the equivalent of a ‘Dead Boy walking’.

As I matured my fear of the unclean would be compounded by a need to wash and purify. I subjected my hands to endless episodes of vigorous of scrubbing that invariably caused them to chafe and redden. This was my remedy for coping with the infection that on its most diabolical level seemed so very real. Thankfully my mom could see through my actions and coaxed me to quit through a well-posed mixture of delicate reprimand and necessary empathy. My OCD would subside briefly, choked back but waiting behind the door to pounce should the next opportunity present itself.

In a sense OCD is a cunning beast in that it seeks the lowest level of your mental being and then strikes with brazen cruelty. Any doubt that it can latch onto becomes fair game. Once the intrusive thought worms its way into your head and escapes the initial check it stays there clawing at any contentment and magnifying its presence with the immediate passage of time. It can consume and it will for it is resilient.

The only respite, at least in those early days was rest, a clearing of the mind and a retreat to a cerebral space that it could not penetrate. There is an urgent need to re-focus, and I learnt how to do this, while eagerly waiting for the return of some facsimile of peace of mind that at the moment seemed extremely remote.

Western History 39: How did the Early Roman Republic expand?

The early Roman Republic warred heavily with its Etruscan rivals with the latter eventually acquiescing in the 4th century BC (the fall of Veii). The Republic grew from its local position in the Latium to eventual domination of all of Italy. The Latin States, the Samnites (in three wars), the Volsci and the Greek colonies would all succumb to the might of the Romans.


The Romans would also secure victory against a league of Greek States that included Epirus and Syracuse in the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC). However not all these advances occurred without setback. In 390 BC the Gauls sacked Rome and the city was inflicted with civil unrest. There is a belief that this period coincided with a time of anarchy (although the extent of the anarchy is still very much in dispute).

Sunday, September 24, 2017

Personal Reflection V - Complexity

I have concerned myself in thought with the concept of complexity whereby simple systems develop in stages and take on new characteristics at each stage Examples are the evolution of the species, complex machinery systems and human social interaction. What fascinates me is the novelty that appears at each level. Its uniqueness that sets it apart from the ‘sum of all characteristics’ of the lower rungs. How does this novelty arise? Why is it often greater than the ‘sum of’? and how does this new intelligence attempt to manifest itself in other layers of organization? Maybe chaos theory tells the story? Somehow I doubt this but clearly there is an emergence of an order that requires explanation. Hopefully I can scratch the surface of some of these problems.

Western History 38: What were the defining features of the Roman Republic?

The Roman Republic that immediately replaced the monarchy was structured along more obvious democratic lines although it was still very much of an oligarchy in all functionality. It would survive until 27 BC and had at its core an unwritten constitution with principles passed down by precedent.

The strongest body of power within Rome was the Senate. It passed decrees (senatus consulta) and its members were appointed by Roman Censors (officers in  charge of the city census and a watchdog for public morality). However the Censors would lose clout over time with real power flowing into the hands of the Triumvirate (a group of three influential figures) who took authority upon special commission to fulfill specific tasks. Most Senators were initially members of the hereditary nobility (the Patricians) but this would change over time with non-Patricians (Plebeians) taking their spot on the Senate using the ticket of wealth or military success as a driver.

In contrast to the Senate stood the legislative assemblies who were tasked with representing the voice of the citizens. They functioned largely on a legal basis and involved themselves in issues of marriage, contract law, tax exemption status, the holding of office and political rights. Citizens were organized on a tribal level that was motivated by geographical considerations. There were various types of assemblies with the Council of Plebs (a Plebian body) being the most active with respect to day-to-day law making of a practical nature.


Another position, the Quaestor, was responsible for financial audits. Initially these office holders were elected but these became more of appointed position as the Republic transitioned to the Empire.

Western History 37: How did Rome emerge?

The mantle of Western Civilization so brandished by the Greeks would be transferred to their natural successors the Romans. Legend has it that the Rome itself was built by Romulus who killed his brother Remus after arguing about the site location for the city. Virgil saw the Romans as the descendants of the city state of Troy who had so valiantly (but ultimately unsuccessfully) battled the Achaean Greeks in the period between 1194-1184 BC in what was to be known as the Trojan Wars (The same conflict described by Homer in his epic poem The Iliad). However it is more likely that the Romans emerged from a settlement population of Italian origin who developed along the Tiber River.
          
The First Roman King was indeed named Romulus (753-716 BCE) and early Roman history was very much entangled with the history of the Etruscans who around 900-500 BC were the dominant group on the Italian peninsula


However the kingdom collapsed in 509 BC with L. Tarquin Superbus serving as its last monarch. Events leading to the downfall of the last king were bought to a head by a revolt of the nobility. This followed the saga of the rape of the aristocrat woman Lucretia by the king’s son. It would be replaced by the Republic.

Monday, September 18, 2017

Personal Reflection IV - Losing interest in the Economist

I was an avid reader of the Economist in the 90s. The articles were generally well written and informative which definitely appealed to me. That they reflect a certain form that punches from the top is an immediate observation and after a while one can start reproducing with ease the magazine's trademark literary style. However I grew tired of the Economist and by 2000 or so I ended my subscription. Part of the problem with the Economist (as its name indicates) is that it tends to view every almost all political issues through the prism of finance and commerce. While this can be useful at times I find it overly reductionist, lacking in the human element and dismissive of the complexities of history that almost always extend beyond such a model.

 I also found their cheerleading of Free Trade as a global panacea - a position that I have very much lost sympathy with - to be tiresome and off base. In a sense the Economist is the voice of right-of-center internationalism. It is the ideas and thoughts of the Davos elite and it reflects a nihilism that at times cynically and unnecessarily scoffs at the traditions of Western Civilization find this position odious. Now this is not to say that I won't read the magazine again  as it is more palatable in smaller doses but there is only so much of its armchair pontificating that I am willing to tolerate on a more consistent level.

Western History 36: What was the Hellenic Age?

What was tragic is that Alexander left no successors so that his vast Empire encompassing 5.2 million square kilometres was divided amongst his generals. The divisions would lead to the emergence of four power blocs: Ptolemaic (Egypt), Seleucid (Mesopotamia and Central Asia), Attalid (Anatolia - Turkey) and Antigonid (Macedon). These blocs would war with each (Lamian and Diadochi wars) however the Hellinistic period that followed his death would last for three hundred years and bring with it a certain degree of stability.


It was the first time in history that the Western thought would emerge at least for a time as a dominant influence over the heartland of Eurasia. In the most dramatic of senses Alexander had triumphed over the rival model shrouded in a mysticism that characterized the Persian dominated Zoroastrian outlook

Sunday, September 17, 2017

Personal Reflection III - Some Excellent Graphic Novels

I am a late entrant but have become a strong admirer of the medium of the Graphic Novel. Like regular novels they are largely driven by the quality of writing and story depth but the art work adds an extra dimension that can make the reading a thoroughly worthwhile experience.

Here are a few that I would recommend

1. Watchmen – Along with Frank Miller, Alan Moore is easily the best writer in the comic book world. Watchmen, is an in depth view into the psychology of being a superhero (a topic alluded to by Stan Lee and Miller as well). It is a truly spectacular work (far superior to V for Vendetta - another Moore work) and indicative of Moore’s real genius that I first acquainted myself with, during my teens, when he wrote the Future Shock Series for 2000 AD. Most people are familiar with the movie but the universe that Moore creates which brings us Ozymandias, the second Silk Spectre, Doctor Manhattan, the Comedian, the second Nite Owl and Rorschach is unparalled in its brilliance.

2. Contract with God – Will Eisner is another writer of immense distinction and his examination of Frimme Hersh in A Contract with God is a much needed work of philosophical significance. Eisner writes about tragedy, love and life struggle as seen through the eyes of a Jewish New Yorker trying to make sense of the never ending curveballs that the universe throws at him.

3. 300 – Frank Miller’s 300 is a gripping read from beginning to end. The story recreates, with significant artistic license, the events of the Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC). While it shouldn’t be taken as real history the excitement value of this story is incredible. Miller has a legacy of pushing the envelope with his writing and 300 is no exception. Fans of Miller should also read his crime thriller series, Sin City as well as his four-issue resurrection of Batman in the Dark Night Returns. The latter is a must for all-lovers of the caped crusader who is easily the most complex and dynamic of the DC characters.

4. The Stand – This Graphic adaptation of the Stephen King that carries the same name is not that easy to find but does exist in libraries in the GTA. Written by Roberto Aguirre-Sarcasa and illustrated by Mike Perkins (published in 2008) the Stand is divided into six books. It tells the story of the aftermath of a deadly plague that has wiped out most of humanity. The world is divided into camps of good and evil who battle for the spoils of what remains. The story arcs of its many characters (one of which is the demon Randall Flagg – a regular King villain) are filled with twists and turns that weld into a powerful plot devoid of oversig

Western History 35: Who was Alexander the Great?

The Classical Era in Greek History (which lasted for two hundred years between the 5th and 4th centuries BC) was followed by the Hellenic Period that was consistent with the rise of the Northern kingdom of Macedonia as the power centre within the Greek mainland.

Philip of Macedonia defeated the alliance of Thebians and Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC and brought the city-states under his sphere of influence. To consolidate his power he formed the League of Corinth in 337 BC but it was his son Alexander the Great who did more than anyone to expand Greek influence eastward.

Alexander the Great was arguably one of the most brilliant military figures to grace all of history and was the first true military champion and active expander of the Western ideal. He ruled as King of Macedon for less than thirteen years (336-323 BC) but built a legacy that would persist for centuries after his death.

The greatest success of Alexander, at least on the battle field, were the victories that he recorded over the Archaemenid Persians who were dispatched in a series of battles of which Granicus, Issus, Gaugamela and Persian Gate are the most important. In doing so he captured the cities of Babylon and Susa and absorbed the Persian Empire (up until this point the world’s largest Empire) into his own.

He also campaigned in Egypt, the Levant and the Balkans before driving eastwards into India where he recorded another famous victory at Hydaspes River.


Alexander spread the message of Greek Civilization. He was a personal student of Aristotle and believed in the supremacy of the rationalism of his culture. Yet he was driven by ambition and when this ambition could not go further (his troops actively rebelled when he wanted them to march on to conquer more land) he stagnated, drank himself into an early grave and by the young age of 32 he was to be no more.

Saturday, September 16, 2017

Personal Reflection II: An important Letter from the Future to the Past

Dear Art School Admissions Committee
I am writing to you from a future that has witnessed the most destructive war in the history of humanity - World War Two (1939-1945). The chief driver in the European Front of this war was an individual who is currently applying to your art school. His name is Adolph Hitler. While I understand that his work may not be up to the high levels that you demand the consequence of you rejecting him will likely set in motion a series of events which will culminate in the death of tens of million people worldwide and an untold magnitude of destruction.
Hitler is a great orator but he is a tormented soul (which will be further embittered by a rejection from your school). He will take his gift of speaking to the beer halls and streets fermenting a hatred that will transform into a powerful movement known as the National Socialist Workers Party (Nazi). In a deteriorating economy the Nazis will gain enough of the popular vote to take power in Germany and then using the mechanism of government will transform the country into a Totalitarian State that will crush dissent, imprison critics, ban unions and implement a policy of racial genocide based on pseudo-scientific and race directed reasoning.
His desire to obtain Lebensraum will force Germany into an unnecessary war that will devastate your country and indirectly lead to the strengthening of another totalitarian system in Europe (Marxist-Leninism) that will further crush individual freedom for years to come.
You have within you the power to stop this train wreck of events by admitting Herr Hitler to your school, allow him to focus his energy on his art, sooth his soul (or at the very least try) and perhaps save Europe and the rest of the world a bloodshed of unparalled intensity.
Please consider his application very carefully in this regard. As proof of my future presence I include an old Iphone, a piece of technology that people in the year 2016 use to communicate with.
Thank You
Yours faithfully
Gavin Kanowitz (one of the lucky ones)

Western History 34: What were the principle wars that plagued Classic Greece?

The Greeks were challenged by the superpower that was Persian but emerged with independence after securing victories at Marathon (490 BCE), Salamis (480 BCE) , Plataea (479 BCE)  and Mycale (479 BCE) . A brief setback at Thermoplylae (480 BCE) almost spelt doom but Grecian resourcefulness would save the civilization. In fact the Athenian dominated Delian League would eventually take the War to the Persians own backyard in Asia itself.


City-states frequently clashed as their geopolitical and economic interests overlapped. Alliances and Leagues were formed and the Greek city-states were weakened by a cycle of recurring wars. The Spartans and Athenians fought the Peloponnesian Wars between 431-404 BC which ended in the eventual victory of the Spartans and the dissolution of Athens and its allies (the Delian League). However Spartan’s hegemony was short lived and they in turn would be weakened by a coalition of Greek states that included Thebes, Corinth, Argos and Athens itself during the inconclusive Corinthian War (395-387 BC).

Western History 33: What were the Greek contributions to Drama and Sport?

Greek thinking was driven by an intense rationalism but they were also great dramatists. The Western play and its initial division into tragedies and comedies derives from a Greek understanding that was reflected in the works of Aeschylus, Phyrnichus, Sophocles and Eurpides (all in the tragedies) and Menader, Plautus and Aristophanes (in the comedies). Comedy itself was divided into the three periods: Old (Satyr), Middle and New. The Thirty Dramatic Situations, outlined by French writer Georges Polti (in the late 19th century) categorizes all dramatic situations and is derived from an analysis of the Greek texts.


The Olympic games represented the pinnacle of Athletic achievement in the Greek World.  776 BCE is cited at the earliest date for these Games and they continued until 394 CE when the Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned them. The games were held in honour of the Greek God Zeus and were shrouded in mythology. A military truce remained in effect for the duration of the Games that were held every four years (the inter-Olympic Time period was known as the Olympiad). Some key events that characterized the games included the foot race, chariot race, discus/javelin throws, jumping, running with armour, wrestling and boxing.

Sunday, September 10, 2017

Personal Reflection I: Think for Yourself

Over the years I have learnt that all issues are not as clear cut as their champions make them out to be and in virtually every case your personal take is at best the optimum stance using the pertinent information available at the time. While it is necessary to have principles it is equally important to listen to contradictory standpoints, which is why the free flow of ideas is so critical to any debate. I have changed my stance over the years on several issues and will likely do so in the future.

While my tendency is to favour positions on the center-right of the political spectrum it certainly doesn't define my take on every issue (not by a long way). However I have noticed over the years that the moment one favours a particular left-right position on a single topic people naturally assume that you have to buy into the rest of the smorgasbord of ideas associated with that side of the political spectrum. This is ridiculous and incredibly short-sighted. While some people may order off a set menu of positions associated with a certain ideology I certainly don't and will continue to advocate for the most important of all notions ie. Think for Yourself.

Western History 32: How did Art develop in Ancient Greece?

The Greek contribution to Western Art cannot be understated. In fact its impact appears globally especially in the Hellenic Period is significant influencing cultures as disparate as India and Japan. Areas of strength centered on sculpture and architecture. The following table is a sample of several distinct styles that were introduced with specific examples that exemplify each one of them. This table is not intended to be inclusive of all styles (which is a vast field on its own) but is more of an appetizer for a great tradition.

Table 9 Some Mainstays of Greek Art and Architecture

Style Type
Style Example
Point of Note
Black-Figure Technique also Sister Red-Figure Technique
Pottery techniques are seen on many amphoras and Bowls. Artists were often skilled slaves. Various rich collections in museums across Europe (particular Munich and Berlin).

Pottery Styles popular between the early 7th century BC going forward to 530 BC.
Monumental Sculpture – Three Periods – Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic.
Archaic c. 700-500 BCE
eg. Lady of Auxerre

Classical c. 500-300 BCE
Emphasis on Naturalistic Form. Eg. Venus Braschi by Praxiteles

Hellenistic – c. 300 BCE-100 BCE. Blending of cultures. More diverse portfolios eg.Winged Victory of Samothrace, Greco-Buddhist frieze at Gandhara and the Venus De Milo.


Sculptures were made of a high quality limestone and were carved using metal implements. Some were free standing. Others served as reliefs. Bronze sculptures made use of the Lost wax technique.
Wall Painting + Panel Painting
Symposium Scene – Tomb of the Diver at Paestum.

Pitsa Panels
Often used in Grave decorations as well as resident and Temple Walls, Greek Wall Painting span a time scale going from the Minoan Age to the onset of the Hellenic
Polychromy – Painting on Stonework.
Trojan archers from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina.
Painting made use of bright colours and were designed to enhance the visual appeal of the Architecture.
Coin Design
Macedonian tetradrachm with image of Heracles.
Not seen by the Greeks as a major art form but its presence is noteworthy. Extensive use of portraits. Many techniques were borrowed from the Persians.
Architecture
Three defined order differentiated by Column Type

Doric (Earliest form) – Simple circular capitals at the top of columns eg. Parthenon Triglyphs/Temple of the Delians.

Ionic – column capitals contain volutes (spirals)
eg. Erectheum.

Corinthian (Latest form)  - Ornate capitals. Impacted Renaissance Art.

eg. Arch at Ancona/Column at Phocas.

Tremendous tradition that spans the period from 900 BCE to 100 CE.  Strong emphasis on Temples, open air theatres, monuments and council buildings.

Many buildings in the US have coped these Greek styles with respect to columns

eg. Western and Southern Life Insurance Building in Cincinnati.



Friday, September 8, 2017

Western History 31: What scientists were influential in Ancient Greece?

Greek rationalism did not restrict itself to pure philosophy and mathematics but to the real of natural philosophy or as what we know today – Science.  Table 8 indicates some key achievements


Table 8 Greek Scientists

Name of Scientist
Contribution
Archimedes of Syracuse
Determined the Law of the Lever and the famed Archimedes Principle in Fluid Mechanics that carries his name. Also contributed to hydraulics and optics.
Aristarchus of Samos
Presented what was probably one of the earliest Heliocentric models of the universe.
Aristotle
Often believed to be the first scientist. Aristotle made use of formal logic to understand the natural sciences. He also placed much emphasis on perception and wrote opinions across a wide variety of scientific disciplines. Although much of his work failed to withstand the rigours of more focused experimentation his contribution to the various fields form an integral part in the story of the emergence of science as a powerful mechanism to understand the universe.
Ctesibius
Father of Pneumatics. Renowned for his work with compressed air. Built a water clock.
Democritus
Together with his mentor Leucippus came up with the theory of the indivisible atom.
Hero of Alexandria
Most likely built the first steam-powered device.
Hippocrates
Father of Modern Medicine. Early advocate  of the systematic diagnostic method.
Meton of Athens
Pioneer in astronomy. Developed one of the earliest astronomical calendar calculators.
Ptolemy
Although superseded by the work of Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei – Ptolemy’s development of the Geocentric model (as outlined in his work the Almagest) was the definitive astronomical model for over a thousand years in the West.
Theophrastus
Developed one of the earliest classification systems in Biology. He is considered the Father of Botany.


Thursday, September 7, 2017

Allied Leadership doubts on their eventual victory in World War Two

Question Answered on Quora

Did the Allied leadership, especially in England and America, ever actually doubt their eventual victory in World War Two?

I believe that there was a time from May 1940 (Fall of France) to June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa) where there was considerable doubt in Britain in particular as to whether they could hold out against the Reich. 

During this period the US had not formally entered the war and the Soviets were actually supplying Germany with resources. The Italians went on the offense in the Mediterranean and Greece, Japan was having success in the East and morale was low in the UK following the very poor showing of the BEF forces in France and before that Norway. 

British success at the Battle of Britain, the oratory of Churchill and better showings in North Africa, the Mediterranean and Abyssinia went someway to allay this fear. However these were very dark days

What is Classic Liberalism?

Classic Liberalism (really just Liberalism…modern liberalism is essentially progressivism) is a political philosophy that emerged during the Age of Reason in 17th century England. At its core it is centered on the notion of liberty.

 The philosophy emphasizes the necessary exchange of ideas, free speech, openness to debates, free markets, private ownership of property and the rule of law. Classic Liberals value a democracy or republic built on a foundation of scientific rationalism, empiricism and healthy skepticism. Individual rights sit at the cornerstone of classic liberalism.

Western History 30: Who were some of the great Ancient Greek Mathematicians?

While the Greeks borrowed heavily from the Mathematics rich cultures of Egypt and Babylonia their own contributions as outlined in the table below are significant.

Table 7 Greek Mathematicians

Name of Mathematician
Key Contribution
Apollonius of Perga
Geometer – Famed for work on conic sections – ellipse, parabola, hyperbola
Archimedes of Syracuse
One of the greatest minds of antiquity. Areas of mathematical concern include – area of a circle, anticipation of calculus, surface area and volume of a sphere, approximation of pi and the area under a parabola.
Diophantus of Alexandria
Father of Algebra. Work centred on Algebraic Equations.
Eratosthenes
Besides inventing the discipline of geography he was the first person to make use of Geometry to determine the circumference and diameter of the Earth. Was also involved in developing a method to identify prime numbers.
Euclid of Alexandria
Father of Geometry. Author of the Great work – The Elements – which deduces the Principles of Geometry from several axiomatic principles.
Hipparchus of Nicacea
Cofounder of Trigonometry. Discovered the Precession of the Equinoxes, developed trigonometric tables and solved several problems in spherical trigonometry.
Pythagoras of Samos
Although he is best known for his famous hypotenuse squared formula (that every student at one time or another has been forced to come to terms with) he did not derive this expression himself but merely popularized its usage (the Babylonians beat him to the punch). Pythagoras did however elucidate some of the mathematics that make the mathematics of music harmonics possible.
Thales of Milletus
Besides being the Father of Western Philosophy, Thales was a renowned Geometer who showed amongst other proofs that the diameter of a circle subtends a triangle with a right angle at the circumference (arguably the oldest proof in Geometry).



Western History 29: What was the contribution of the Athenian trio?

Perhaps no single group of philosophers have influenced Western Thought more than Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. In fact one could argue that the foundation of our education system rides on the bedrock of this trio of Athenian intellects.

Socrates, who words are primarily portrayed in external sources (such as Plato’s dialogue), stressed the importance of ethics in philosophy, questioning arguments to elucidate their strength and challenging one’s assumptions.

Plato, like his mentor Socrates focused on several themes that included justice, friendship and piety. His work on government outlined in the Republic serves as the bedrock for any study of political philosophy and his outlining of the ideal is still central to most thought.

In Aristotle we witness a methodical breakdown of academics into its component parts, a formalization of logic (through syllogisms) and a greater focus on relativism in both the abstract and the here and now.

Western History 28: How did philosophy develop in Ancient Greece?

The Milesian thinker and mathematician Thales is considered to be one of the fathers of the Western Philosophical tradition. While many of his contemporaries were running around blaming natural events on the ongoing strife of the gods Thales believed that such phenomena could be BEST understood by rationally unraveling the structure of matter that he believed was centred around water as the originating principle. In doing so Thales helped take explanation beyond the scope of the supernatural and so galvanized the earliest school of philosophy named after the Ionian City in which he resided (Miletus).

In addition Thales was well versed in deductive reasoning and goes down in history as the first person ever to be identified with a mathematical principle (Thales’ theorem of the diameter of a circle subtending a right angle triangle).

Now Thales was not the only philosopher to emerge from this school. Following closely in his wake, and continuing with the notion of the structure of matter were :

  • Anaxgoras – Felt that material was ordered by the cosmic mind and that there was an infinite number of primary substances
  • Anaximander – argued for an endless, unlimited mass not restricted by age
  • Diogenes of Apollonia – Rationalized that air was the primary substance
  • Empedocles – Favoured the four element makeup of matter – the four elements were water, earth, air and fire – Also spoke of forces within matter
·         Heraclitus – Believed that all of matter is made up of fire and that change is real – he also argued that everything is in a state of flux ("No man can cross the same river twice, because neither the man nor the river are the same.")
·         Hippo – extended basic matter concepts into the biological realm – thought to be one of the earliest atheists.

·         Parmenides – Philosopher from Italian Greek colony of Elea who argued that reality is one, existence is timeless and change is impossible. Antithesis of Heraclitus.

Tuesday, September 5, 2017

Worldohistory Going Forward

My intention is that Worldohistory will become my principal blog. I plan to shut down Worldoreason but will migrate some material over to Worldohistory as is necessary.

Posts in Worldohistory will be of three types

a. General writing on various historically relevant topics (includes Quizzes)
b. The Western World in 300 Events (An Ongoing chronicle of key facets that shaped Western Civilization)
c. Reflections on topics not necessarily related to history - includes writing on Deism, Skepticism and Judaism.



The Western History 27: How did Democracy develop in Athens?

The common wisdom is that the liberal western democracy has its roots in the democratic structure of Ancient Greece and to some extent that is true. Athens was easily Greece’s most influential city, even if its prowess as evident in the Peloponnesian War did not always translate to military success. Yet the democracy of the Athenian’s was on a level far removed from that what we see today in the west and had origins which were less than glorious.

Like most ancient cities Athens was ruled by a king who was the head of the land-owning aristocrats (Eupatridae). A council of government called the Areopagus was charged with the day-to-day running of the city that expanded as Athens came to dominate the region of Attica in a process known as synoikismos. However unrest caused by disparities in income undermined the status quo and the Areopagus, through its go-to-guy Draco (whose name provides the root for the draconian adjective) drafted stringent codified laws to curtail these unwelcome developments. Predictably they failed and the Areopagus was forced to carry out an ‘about face’ with the appointment of the reformer, Solon (whose bas-relief can be found in the US House of Representatives).

Solon (aka the Lawgiver)  is credited with laying the foundations for the Athenian model of democracy. He reduced the economic power of the aristocracy, lessened restrictions on trade and commerce and restructured Athenian society into four groupings. Wealth and military service were to guide such division but what was most important is that the poorest of all these classes, the Thetai, were given political rights for the first time.

True power still resided with the Areopagus and initially class unrest was not curtailed. However the system would continue under the tyrant (a name given to somebody who takes power by force) Peisistratus (Solon’s cousin).

The true hero though of Athenian democracy was Cleisthenes, who further weakened the power of the aristocracy and introduced a system of ostracism (whereby citizens deemed to be a threat to the democracy could by a vote of 6,000 citizens be exiled from the city for ten years).

Cleisthenes filled positions in his government using a random selection process known as sortition (setting up the Council of 500). He also transformed the four traditional tribes system of order into a system of ten tribes based on area of residency. These new structures were known as demes.

Despite the successes Athenian Democracy was a far cry from the democracy we have today (although it was revolutionary in its break from the political structures of its time). Only free, male citizens above the age of 18 could vote with the exclusive citizenship criteria greatly restricting the electorate base. Consequently at the height of its power it is believed that only 10-20% of the population of 310,000 has any say whatsoever in the running of the Athenian polis. Nevertheless it was an important start that would pave the way for later reforms and therefore should be judged favourably as a valuable milestone in the development of the western political structure.

Sunday, September 3, 2017

Western History 26: What were some of the most important Greek City States?

For much of its existence the Greek civilization was dominated by independent city states or polis. These started to rise in prominence after the Grecian Dark Ages (1100-800 BCE) and numbered well into the hundreds. Each city-state had a unique character dictated by both demographics and geography and were governed by disparate systems of political infrastructure. 

Table 6 outlines some of the key city-states and some of their defining historical milestones.


City State
Points of Note
Argos
A powerful rival to Sparta in the Peloponnesian peninsular, Argos has a history going back to Mycenean times. It refused to send forces to fight in the Greco-Persian war resulting in its shunning and its subsequent decline. It was an ineffective ally with Athens during the fight against Sparta.
Athens
The greatest of all Greek city states. Athens dominated the Attica region of Greece and was renowned not only for its democracy but as a centre for art, learning and philosophy. Athens was a seafaring power that used the port of Piraeus as an outlet to the Mediterranean. In antiquity it dominated the Greek mainland through the vehicle of the Delian League. Its influence waned after its loss to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War.
Corinth
Located in the isthmus that joins the Peloponnesian with the Greek mainland, Corinth grew from a backwater to become one of the richest polis as a result of the Isthmian trade route. It was defeated by Athens at Megara in 458 BCE. It sided with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431 BCE)  but then broke the alliance to side with Athens in the Corinthian War. It eventually joined forces with Sparta again in 379 BC. The city was later dominated by the Romans who destroyed much of Corinth in 146 BCE.peninsular
Delphi
The site of the Pythia, or the oracles, that Greek tradition credits with the power of prophecy. The oracles were largely priestesses associated with the Temple of Apollo. Delphi was believed to be the centre of the Earth.
Miletus
The greatest of all the Ionian Greek Cities. Miletus is generally credited as the birth place of Western Philosophy. Its grid like city was the archetype model of Roman cities. As a city it was noted for its maritime power and was the centre of the Ionian League’s 499 BCE revolt against the Persians.
Mykenae
Steeped in Ancient history Mykenae was the centre of the early Greek culture that bears its name. The city was destroyed by the Dorians in 1100 BCE. It provided troops that fought against the Persians but struggled with aggression from its neighbour Argos who besieged and destroyed the city in 468 BCE.
Olympia
A sanctuary city located in the region of Elis in the Peloponnese Olympia was the site of the Ancient Olympic Games that were held in honour of Zeus from the 8th century BCE to the 4th century CE. It housed a golden statue of Zeus that was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Rhodes
An island located in the Dodecanese group Rhodes was inhabited as early as the 16th century BCE by the Ancient Minoans.  It was mentioned in Homer’s Illiad and Pindar’s ode as an island born from the union of Helios the sun god and the nymph Rhodes.  The Persians overran the island but were driven out by the Athenians in 478 BCE.  During the Peloponnesian War the island was largely neutral. The various communities on the island joined to form the city state in 408 BCE. It featured prominently in Greek History as a maritime entity where it played a key role in the grain trade.
Sikyon
Sikyon was a city state located in the Northern Peloponnese. A loyal follower of Sparta it backed the latter in their fight against both the Athenians and Corinthians. In 369 BCE however it fell to Theban forces. Sikyon was noted as a centre of art especially sculpture. It experimented with democracy but would later fall under Macedonian control.
Sparta
Also known as Lacedaemon Sparta was Greece’s principal military power and chief rival to Athens. Its strong focus on military training and fighting excellence ensured its vital role in the Greco-Persian Wars and its defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War. (which did however prove to be costly). It would eventually be defeated by Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE in an event that would drastically curtail its hegemony. Sparta was also known for its cultivation of olives and citrus fruits and dominated the Greek region of Laconia. Its Oligarchy system of government contrasted sharply with the Athenian democracy.
Thebes
Located in the central region of Boetia Thebes would dominate Greece after defeating Sparta in 371 BCE.  Initially an ally of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War Thebes would turn against the Spartans in opposition against the proposed expansion policies of the latter. Its strength would continue until its ultimate submission at the hands of the Macedonian king Phillip II.